From Migrants to Guests: The Kerala Experience
Sameek Mondal
IN Kerala, there are no ‘migrant workers’ in the conventional sense; they are instead known as ’guest workers’. This framing itself reflects how the state perceives them. Nearly 35 lakh such workers are employed across Kerala, making the state their preferred destination. On the one hand, relatively high wages, steady demand for labour and safer working conditions attract them; on the other hand, unemployment, low wages and infrastructural deficits in their home states push them outward. Over the past few decades, these dynamics have established a stable labour migration corridor between Kerala and other parts of India.
Unlike in earlier times, when neighbouring states of Kerala were the primary sources of migration, more recent flows originate mainly from West Bengal, Odisha, Assam and Bihar. A significant proportion of these workers are concentrated in the unorganised sector. Fair wages, access to social security and welfare schemes and the proactive role of trade unions make Kerala more attractive compared to other Indian states. In fact, Kerala has emerged as a model state for the holistic welfare of migrant workers, setting benchmarks that other states might learn from. Despite limited resources and persistent challenges, successive Left Democratic Front (LDF) governments have succeeded in extending welfare board-based social security measures to disadvantaged groups, including migrants. Importantly, such initiatives extend not only to the workers themselves but also to their families, which remain central to the state’s policy priorities.
SHIFTING PATTERNS OF LABOUR MIGRATION
Recent trends suggest that interstate migrant labourers in Kerala often come for limited durations. Many return to their native states after a period of employment, sometimes returning to Kerala later. This cyclical nature makes precise enumeration of migrant labour difficult. A 2021 study supported by the Kerala State Planning Board indicated that the largest concentration of migrant workers was in the construction industry - approximately 17.5 lakh. The manufacturing sector follows, employing around 6.3 lakh. Beyond these two sectors, migrant workers are also engaged in marine fisheries and agricultural activities, according to Kerala Economic Review 2024. The highest numbers are found in Ernakulam district, followed by Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode and Alappuzha. Unlike in most Indian states where migrants are primarily concentrated in cities, in Kerala, they are also dispersed across rural regions. This is partly due to the unique character of rural Kerala, which embodies certain urban features, allowing migrants to find work opportunities in both rural and urban spaces.
HIGHER WAGES AND WORK SECURITY
According to a recent survey by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, 58 per cent of workers in the marine fisheries sector are migrants. In mechanised fishing, particularly in the Munambam harbour of Ernakulam, as many as 78 per cent of workers are migrants, largely from Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Odisha. About 50 per cent of workers in fish processing and 40 per cent in marketing also belong to this category. Migrant wages in this industry are significantly higher than in their home states: in Kerala, workers earn Rs 800-1200 per day, whereas in Odisha or West Bengal, they earn Rs 300-800 for the same work. Recent studies show that these workers remit nearly 75 per cent of their earnings back home. Often, accommodation and food are provided at worksites. Some are also paid on a share basis, with wages tied to production output - allowing them to earn substantially more during peak fishing seasons than they would under fixed wage regimes elsewhere.
The Reserve Bank of India’s Handbook of Statistics confirms that Kerala consistently pays the highest rural wages in India. For example, agricultural labourers earn Rs 764.30 per day in Kerala compared to the national average of Rs 345.70. Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat report the lowest at Rs 229.20 and Rs 241.90 respectively while West Bengal stands at Rs 288.60. Non-agricultural rural workers in Kerala earn Rs 696.60 per day (national average Rs 348) and construction workers receive Rs 852.50 (national average Rs 393.30). The contrast is stark with states such as Madhya Pradesh (Rs 278.70) and Tripura (Rs 286.10), which record the lowest in the construction sector.
FROM STREETS TO SCHOOL
In May 2025, the Kerala government launched Jyothi, a programme to ensure educational access for children of migrant workers. This initiative aims to extend the state’s legacy of universal, free education to the children of its guest workers. While many such children are already enrolled in government schools, a section has remained excluded. The Jyothi programme specifically seeks to bridge this gap by enrolling children aged 3-6 years in Anganwadi centres and older children in public schools. Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan has remarked that if these children remained on the streets, their future would be lost. Thus, it is the government’s responsibility to provide proper education.
Another important scheme is Roshni, which provides supplementary lessons in language for migrant children. Ninety minutes before regular classes, children from Bengali, Odia, and Hindi-speaking households receive lessons in Malayalam, English and Hindi. This early exposure to the local language enables them to integrate more effectively and pursue higher education. Consequently, children from migrant families in Kerala have demonstrated notable educational progress.
HEALTH AND SOCIAL SECURITY
Kerala has pioneered comprehensive health and social security initiatives for migrant workers. The Aawaz health insurance scheme, for instance, covers accident and medical benefits, death compensation, educational allowances for children and retirement benefits. Registered workers receive up to Rs 25,000 in medical coverage and Rs 200,000 in accidental death benefits. According to the Kerala Economic Review 2024, over five lakh migrant workers are already enrolled. A dedicated welfare fund under the Inter-State Migrant Workers Welfare Scheme has been set up, mainly channelled through the Kerala Building and Other Construction Workers’ Board. Any worker aged 18-60 years, who has worked in Kerala for at least a month, can register.
To streamline services, the government has developed mobile applications such as Athidhi and Guest. These platforms, available in multiple languages (Malayalam, English, Bengali, Odia, Telugu and Hindi), enable easy registration and access to welfare schemes.
In Ernakulam, the government has also introduced Bandhu - a mobile clinic catering specifically to migrant workers. Recognised by the World Health Organization (WHO), these clinics have served over 40,000 workers, including 15,000 clinical services delivered through two mobile units. By overcoming barriers of language, geography and time, Bandhu ensures affordable health access for migrants and their families. Kerala’s robust public health infrastructure, internationally acknowledged during the COVID-19 pandemic, continues to benefit this vulnerable population.
HOUSING INITIATIVES
Through the Apna Ghar scheme, Kerala has moved towards providing secure accommodation for its guest workers. Under this programme, dormitory facilities equipped with kitchens, bathrooms, recreational spaces, CCTV security, modern sanitation, rainwater harvesting and backup power are being constructed. In 2023, the first phase was completed with a 600-bed dormitory in Palakkad and a 100-bed facility in Kinalur, Kozhikode.
BROADER POLITICAL-ECONOMIC CONTEXT
The Kerala government’s perspective is reflected in its deliberate use of the term guest workers rather than migrant workers. Welfare interventions of this scale have further enhanced Kerala’s attractiveness for interstate workers, including many from West Bengal, who migrate in the absence of adequate employment opportunities at home. For instance, the discontinuation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) payments for over three years, coupled with corruption, mismanagement and economic stagnation, has forced many rural households to seek livelihoods outside their state.
Historically, Kerala has itself been a site of large-scale outmigration to the Gulf, thereby generating dependency on migrant workers for key sectors. Migrant workers are now indispensable to Kerala’s economy. According to the Kerala State Planning Board (2021), migrants spend nearly Rs 10,000 crore annually within the state while remitting around Rs 750 crore to their home states. In other states, while local workers struggle with low wages and exploitative credit systems, migrant workers face challenges of social exclusion and identity-based discrimination.
Despite central government apathy and resource constraints, Kerala has maintained its position as a model state in development and welfare provisioning. Its recent initiative to participate in a nationwide survey of unorganised labour aims at further refining inclusive policy measures. Participation in the Periodic Labour Force Survey and the Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector Enterprises 2025 will enable the state to generate reliable district-level data on unorganised labour and human resources indicators. Chief Minister Vijayan has remarked during the launch that if oil had been the critical resource of the previous century, data would be the defining resource of the 21st. He further noted that accurate statistics would ensure transparency in governance and enable the government to design new schemes for youth and jobseekers.
